Class Discussion

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215 thoughts on “Class Discussion”

    2. it was so sad and my questions are how destruction of corals affects the environment of the sea and other aquatic? or in other words what are the consequences of coral death for other marine species?
      due to the impact of human activities on global warming, how we can prevent this from happening and helping the life of coral reefs?

  2. Jena Krell
    Biology 100

    Is there any way to regulate ocean temperatures or slow the increase down?

    Jena, It is pretty difficult to regulate the temperature of large bodies of water, like oceans. It is hard to heat or cool them. If we wanted to slow down the increase in temperature, then yes by emitting less greenhouse gas to the atmosphere would help slow it down. Methane and carbon dioxide are two greenhouse gases that have increased due to anthropogenic causes. It does make a difference if people use less of these. Here is a link that explains more about the heat in the oceans https://www.climate.gov/news-features/understanding-climate/climate-change-ocean-heat-content

    1. Thank you. That is helpful. Why is it that Carbon Dioxide causes the environment to heat up? Why can’t corals grow in freshwater? What is it about the salt that helps them thrive? Jena, try thinking about it this way – if here we live in an atmosphere that is 77% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and 1% other gases. If we changed our air so that it had 21% carbon dioxide our bodies would not receive the oxygen it needs to function at the cellular level. It would be the same for a coral growing in freshwater instead of saltwater. Their entire system at the cellular functions in a salt water environment that is at a certain salinity (between 30 and 40 parts per thousand).

  3. ENVS 100 (online)
    Are there any animals or plant life that consume coral polyps to survive? I know there is a specie of fish (clown fish) that relies on sea anemone to live in, are there any animals that rely on coral reefs or polyps in order to survive (food/shelter)?

    Guenhwyvar, Yes there are organisms that eat coral. Parrot fish, Crown-of-thorns starfish (https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/plague-sea-stars), some worms (https://ocean.si.edu/ocean-life/invertebrates/fireworm-takes-fire-coral), and some snails will eat coral.

  4. Wendy A.
    ENVS 100

    Are tourism and/or direct human interaction a problem for coral reefs?

    Wendy, Yes, they can be. In Cabo Pulmo where I am going on the trip the reef was overfished, but then restored. Local residents were concerned about development and tourism there in 2012 (see this youtube Cabo Pulmo, a reserve threatened by mass tourism https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7UbtTHJ58hI). Once I go there I will be able to better answer whether it has become an issue. But too often visitors do not understand the sensitivity of the reefs. For example, how many of us use reef-friendly sunscreen? >Sunscreen wipes out corals https://www.nature.com/news/2008/080129/full/news.2008.537.html

    1. One of the things we are doing is to fragment the coral and grow them quickly in nurseries in the ocean or some nurseries are on land. Then reestablish the young coral on the dead reefs. This is being done all over the world, but it isn’t a permanent solution if the waters are too warm.

  6. Terra C.
    BIO108

    If coral cannot be rehabilitated in a timely manner, or if the decline starts to go faster than the current rate, what effects can we expect to see besides a decrease in fish habitats? Will it be something that we see in our lifetime or is it something that will take a bit to see the effects of this decline?

    1. Terra, it is something we are seeing now. In my lifetime 90% of the coral reefs in the Florida Keys have been lost and they are saying 50% worldwide since about the 1980s. The Great Barrier reef suffered a huge hit and half of it has bleached since 2016. They are seeing some resilience there. https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2018-12-11/great-barrier-reef-bleaching-less-2017/10599840
      This is exactly what has motivated me to do something – at the very least make people more aware.

    1. Aparna, the corals have a layer of mucus that protects them. If touched by our hands we leave our natural oils on them and disrupt this mucus layer. It can increase disease for the coral and eventually result in its death.

      This mucus layer helps to capture floating organic debris and then much of the mucus dissolves water and then circulates into the sediment of the ocean. Thereby adding nutrients to the ocean sands.
      https://www.nature.com/articles/nature02344

    1. Claire, If the coral are not fully bleached (dead), then yes sometimes they can recover. For example, in our research tank in S114 we had a small “bleaching” event because the coral became stressed due to lack of water flow when the pump went off while I was on vacation this summer. I was so worried and thought they were dead, but greatly relieved to see that they recovered. This happens in the ocean too, but most of the bleaching that is happening is not something that coral are recovering from.

    2. Juanjuan Xu Environment Science 100
      Rising sea temperatures can cause corals to fade. When the temperature of the sea water is too high, the corals discharge the algae that live in their tissues, causing the corals to turn white. When the coral was bleached, it did not die immediately. Although corals can survive, they are suffer greater stress and are easy to death. I hope that human beings should protect the environment and return a suitable living space for corals.

    1. Any kind of stress could cause bleaching. Temperature, too much solar radiation, sudden exposure to the air, rapid dilution of the salt water by freshwater (where a river comes in or there is runoff), some chemical exposures (copper, herbicides, and oil), and some pathogenic diseases are all possible reasons for coral to bleach.

    2. Adding on to Professor Lane’s response, sedimentation caused by erosion on coastal areas can cause coral bleaching. This erosion causes silt to get into the water, blocking light needed for photosynthesis for some coral to grow and also blocking nutrients from getting to the coral. Sedimentation can happen during a natural disaster such as a tsunami where the wave can erode the coastline and bring silt into the ocean.

    1. Yes, it is a major problem. In an event in 2005, the U.S. lost half of its coral reefs in the Caribbean in one year due to a massive bleaching event.
      Here is an article from National Geographic that gives more information. https://news.nationalgeographic.com/2017/06/coral-reef-bleaching-global-warming-unesco-sites/

      Here are some graphs that show current areas of concern for bleaching.
      https://coralreefwatch.noaa.gov/satellite/analyses_guidance/global_coral_bleaching_2014-17_status.php

    1. Diane, I think two big things we can do is think twice about the kind of sunscreen we are using and how much plastic we use. The water on land does wash into the sea and carries whatever we have used in it. Oxybenzone and octinoxate are the primary culprits in sunscreens. As far as plastic goes, consider minimizing the single-use plastics particularly. While larger plastics may not damage the coral directly I am willing to bet micro plastics are in the coral just as they are in us. Exactly how this is impacts physiology is not yet understood.

    1. Kaitlyn,
      Reefs provide habitat to marine organisms, income, food, protection, and medicine.
      Habitat: Home to over 1 million diverse aquatic species, including thousands of fish species. 25 % of the world’s fishes use reefs. Many fish and marine invertebrates use coral habitat as a refuge (especially the young) and place for spawning. If the coral are not there then their is less space for living safely.
      Income: Billions of dollars and jobs in over 100 countries around the world.
      Food: For people living near coral reefs, especially on small islands. And the King Crab we enjoy in Seattle uses the deep, cold-water coral communities of Alaska and the Pacific as habitat. So food for us too. Here is an article that speaks of deep-sea coral habitats. https://mcbi.marine-conservation.org/what/what_pdfs/Current_Magazine/Alaska.pdf

      Protection: A natural barrier protecting coastal cities, communities and beaches.
      Medicine: The potential for treatments for many of the world’s most prevalent and dangerous illnesses and diseases.

  13. Karina Shirokova
    ENVS& 100

    I am going to Maui in April and plan on snorkeling a lot because it is one of my favorite activities. What are some things I should or should not do in order to be harmless to the coral? Because of this discussion, I am now aware of the importance of having reef friendly sunscreen. Is there anything else I can do?

    1. Snorkeling is one of my favorite activities as well! We can protect the reef by looking, but not touching. Coral are beautiful animals with all those polyps, but they are fragile. So not anchoring to the reef, not stepping on it, and just staying away from the ocean floor in that area is helpful. Karina, if you are on campus I have live coral in a tank in S114 (Science Study Center). Here are some other ideas I ran across for snorkeling. https://www.reefrelief.org/act/tips-for-divers-and-snorkelers/

  14. Because coral reefs have the opportunity to create advanced medicines with the organisms in them do any medical organizations support the restoration and research of them? is there a safe way to do research in the reef and extracting the medical needs without destroying it?

    1. Sophia, that is a good question. I do not know whether any medical organizations are donating to reef restoration or not. I’ll have to do some searching on that one. My guess is that yes, indirectly there would be medical organizations involved through research donations.

      While an animal, coral can be fragmented or broken off and it will continue to grow. So instead of destroying an entire reef samples or small fragments can be carried back to the laboratory and kept alive for years. In December 2017 I traveled to the Florida Keys Mote Marine Lab and learned how to fragment coral. There they are using the technique to grow more coral to reestablish the reefs.

    1. Brittany,
      Coral bleaching is when the coral lose their symbiotic algae. I consider it bad for the environment because it means the coral have died and coral reefs support at least 25% of our marine fishes. It won’t be the end of the world if all the coral in the ocean die, but it will greatly impact not only those marine organisms who use the reef for habitat, but also people who eat those fish. I dare say most of us. The reef can “bleach” relatively quickly if due to temperature. Imagine how it is when you have a fever of 102 or 103F, you are very sick and you cannot live very long with that body temperature. The coral expel their symbiotic algae when they are “stressed” by the high ocean temperatures. And that’s bleaching. If you can watch Chasing Coral on Netflix.

    2. Hi Simon,
      The Great Pacific garbage patch is devastating to coral. It blocks sunlight from reaching the coral, blocks nutrients and causes multiple diseases in which are explained in detail in the study that Professor Lane shared a link to.

    1. John, A couple of my ENVS 295 students will be excited to see the question on sharks. I am learning about sharks myself, what I have found is that most reef sharks behave not as much like the apex predator, but more as a mid-level predator. This is from The Ecological Role of Sharks on Coral Reefs https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0169534716000598
      We need to request that one from the library and read more. Thank you for asking.

    1. Anna, which class are you in please. When coral are stressed by changes in conditions such as temperature, light, and nutrients they will expel the symbiotic algae that live in the coral tissue (and what give the coral color) and turn white or bleach. Here is a link where you can read more https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/coral_bleach.html
      Why is there so much coral bleaching? That’s a good question. In many places it is the rise ocean temperatures and the ocean being more acidic that is causing the bleaching. Higher ocean temperatures and ocean acidification are the result of more green house gases in the atmosphere.

  19. Marley Canty-Swapp
    ENVS 100

    Normally when we think about the animals that are most affected by the coral we automatically think of fish, but there are so many other other kinds of wildlife. So my question is what species are most directly affected by the deterioration of the coral?

    1. Good question Marley! I’m still learning about coral reefs too, but I think that sea turtles would be highly impacted by loss of coral reef habitat. Remember the reef structure is not made up only of corals there are sponges and algae mixed in. Sea turtles are herbivores on the reef and eat the algae. They also will eat sponges. The sea turtles help keep the amount of algae growing on the reef in balance. And different sea turtles eat different types of algae. In my mind, as the reef deteriorates the some species of sea turtles could be greatly impacted.

  20. Hello, Ashley D here from BIOL 108.
    My question regarding coral reefs is, how can we as humans prevent damage to coral. Also, what type of marine life rely on the coral in Cabo Pulmo. Have fun. Can’t wait to hear more.

    1. Ashley, thank you for asking what we can do. I would like to ask that we “think twice before doing things.” What I mean by this is that there are so many small ways that we can change how we do something that would make a difference. For example, sunscreen. There are chemicals in most sunscreens that are harmful to the reefs. Yes, we live in Washington, but we do have coral in Puget Sound and nearby deep in the Pacific. The chemicals that we use are washed into the waterways and eventually the oceans. It does matter. Yes, it is more expensive to buy reef-friendly sunscreen and you have to look to find it. I mean really look. Here is an article that may be helpful.
      https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/features/sunscreen-destroying-coral-reefs-alternatives-travel-spd/

    1. Andrew – one of the problems with the sunscreen is the nano-sized particles in some of them. I don’t know the details of how they are impacting the coral, but I do know they can also stress the coral and cause bleaching. A balanced article about sunscreens is this one by the Smithsonian magazine. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/features/sunscreen-destroying-coral-reefs-alternatives-travel-spd/
      PCBs I’m not sure we know about. I found this article where they did find evidence of PCBs getting into the water in the area of a reef. And the PCBS leached out from plastic scientific gear! Great, huh. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S096706451
      3000696
      Specifically what the PCBs are doing to the coral I don’t know. At some concentration they would be a stressor. Remember RISK = EXPOSURE x TOXICITY

    1. Hi Makenna (and Mom), When coral reefs bleach it impacts the fish and other organisms who live there (about 25% of marine fishes inhabit the reefs) and it also impacts the mineralization of the sands of the ocean floor. Thanks for asking.

    1. Caroline, That is a challenging question and I don’t really know the answer to it. I am sure there are many perspectives on that. My personal perspective about coral reefs is that I just cannot believe we have lost so many of them in my own lifetime. So for me I am motivated to do something – hence my blog, the ENVS 295 class which performs undergraduate research projects and the lessons you are doing.

    1. Hi Olivia,

      I am going to be a little lazy here and give you the same answer I gave Kaitlyn. I hope you don’t mind and that it answers your question too!

      Reefs provide habitat and food to marine organisms, and for people income, food, protection, and medicine.

      Income: Billions of dollars and jobs in over 100 countries around the world.
      Food: For people living near coral reefs, especially on small islands. And the King Crab we enjoy in Seattle uses the deep, cold-water coral communities of Alaska and the Pacific as habitat. So food for us too. Here is an article that speaks of deep-sea coral habitats. https://mcbi.marine-conservation.org/what/what_pdfs/Current_Magazine/Alaska.pdf
      Protection: A natural barrier protecting coastal cities, communities and beaches.
      Medicine: The potential for treatments for many of the world’s most prevalent and dangerous illnesses and diseases.

    1. Destinee, Another challenging question. I am sure there are mathematicians modeling the possibilities of what may happen. I can say that in the past 30 or 40 years 90% of the coral reefs in the Florida Keys have been lost. And we weren’t doing much in the way of restoration work until recently. The Great Barrier Reef is half gone, although some of it seems to be coming back. The Great Barrier Reef was impacted heavily by bleaching events in the past 5 years. So if we did nothing, it could be pretty soon. People are doing something though. They are reestablishing corals on dead reefs and they are looking at what makes certain corals more able to withstand the stresses better. Thanks for asking.

    1. Alexander – really good question. If you have the opportunity to watch Chasing Coral on Netflix it shows how quickly some of the reefs die. I don’t think there is much people can do other than restore coral reefs or provide some sort of habitat nearby that is suitable for the organisms that lived on the reef that died or is dying. Coral restoration work is underway. We can talk about that more in class and I know there is a question about coral restoration in someone’s post. I will provide more information there.

  27. While Climate Change may have a devastating impact on coral reefs due to rising ocean temperatures and sea levels, are there any other threats to coral reefs that we as a society should be wary about?

    Some ideas that came to my mind are overfishing, increasing amounts of trash in the ocean (such as the Pacific ocean garbage patch), and pollution, especially in the form of industrial runoff from factories.

    1. Aidan, yes all of those you mention can be a threat to coral reefs. Overfishing is a large part of what happened in Cabo Pulmo, where I am headed. Then in the 1990s they started protecting the area and now it is recovered. Pollutants and plastics both can add stress to the coral and increase the rate of disease. Stressed corals, whether it be due to temperature change or disease at some point may bleach.

    1. Joe, great question. Coral reefs help by providing a barrier between storm waves and the shore. It is a simple answer, but it really counts to have that protective reef outside the shore taking some of the hit from a hurricane rather than having it come directly into shore.

    1. Yoni – excellent thought, what does history tell us. In the past 40 years coral bleaching events are 5x more frequent than previously. I am going to have to do a little research to find out what happened prior to the 1980s. I would expect there to be previous coral bleaching events in the history of the Earth. When and where I do not know offhand.

    1. Matthew, Cabo Pulmo is an example of a reef that was unhealthy and recovered to a healthy state. So in addition to Cabo Pulmo being the most ancient reef in North America it is also an example of recovery and resilience in the ocean. Yay for Cabo Pulmo!

    1. Nhu, yes it does affect many other organisms. Some of the posts here talk about fish, sea turtles, sharks, and the mineralization of the sands. A good overview of the coral reef food web is in these 7 slides by National Geographichttps://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/coral-reef-food-web/
      Thank you for asking!

    1. Williams & Khanh,
      I am going to answer your questions together. Sometimes yes, the bleaching event does not extend to the point of death of the coral and they are highly stressed. What we can do is minimize local stressors to help the recovery along. How long that takes depends on so many factors – local pollution levels, ocean temperatures and pH levels, overharvesting of fish are a few. Recovery is not quick at any rate. There is now a Coral Reef Conservation Program (https://coralreef.noaa.gov/) to help communities to understand and best conserve their local reefs. It isn’t an easy task! And here is a short article about the recovery of the reef at Cabo Pulmo. https://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/16/when-coral-reefs-recover/

    2. Williams & Khanh,
      I am going to answer your questions together. Sometimes yes, the bleaching event does not extend to the point of death of the coral and they are highly stressed. What we can do is minimize local stressors to help the recovery along. How long that takes depends on so many factors – local pollution levels, ocean temperatures and pH levels, overharvesting of fish are a few. Recovery is not quick at any rate. There is now a Coral Reef Conservation Program (https://coralreef.noaa.gov/) to help communities to understand and best conserve their local reefs. It isn’t an easy task!
      And here is a short article about the recovery of the reef at Cabo Pulmo. https://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2012/07/16/when-coral-reefs-recover/

    1. Milo,
      One thing those of us living in the Pacific Northwest should do is wear sunscreen. Did you know that we have a high incidence of melanoma?
      https://www.king5.com/article/news/health/skin-cancer-rates-on-the-rise-in-washington/441314590
      And the kind of sunscreen we wear matters for aquatic life (not just coral).
      A balanced article about sunscreens is this one by the Smithsonian magazine.
      I also pointed it out to Andrew! https://www.nationalgeographic.com/travel/features/sunscreen-destroying-coral-reefs-alternatives-travel-spd/

    1. Hi Yasmine! Bleaching for the coral means that they eject their colorful symbiotic algae (the zooxanthellae) and because they do this the coral become white – having a bleached appearance. So it isn’t something we can remove from the water. Take a look at some of the other posts that ask about what causes bleaching. Will it affect fishes – yes it especially affects fish who eat coral (not many but butterfly and parrot fish will), fish whose young live in the coral habitat (about 25% of marine fishes), and fish prey on the little fish that live there. Thank you for asking.

    1. Daniel, Yes! Coral reefs are considered to be a bountiful resource for new medicines. Medicines for cancer, as well as, arthritis, bacterial infections, viruses, heart disease, and other diseases are being investigated. Corals are believed to be large potential resource because as sessile animals they have many chemical defenses developed.

    1. Reo, yes absolutely. In December 2017 I went to Mote Marine Lab in the Florida Keys to learn about coral fragmentation from Dr. Dave Vaughan and his team. There they fragment the coral and grow them in “raceways” right on the shore using water from the canal. This process of helps to produce large amounts of coral to “outplant” within a couple years and they do in a way selectively breed those coral that grow more quickly.
      In addition, other scientists are looking at CRISPR techniques to learn more about the coral genome and determine future strategies for helping the coral to become more resilient.

    1. Austin, I am not quite certain. Coral do require a certain level of salinity in the water and are quite sensitive to that and the amount of flow in the waters. Different coral have somewhat different requirements, but there is a range that most will tolerate. There are soft coral in Puget Sound and some small stony corals that secrete their calcium carbonate skeletons. If I have not answered you we can talk about it more in class. Thank you.

    1. Guadalupe, excellent question. For Human Biology we will be looking into those connections. Since coral are animals they do have similarities, for example a digestive system and skeletal system; although both are much more simple than in people.

    1. Andrew, sadly this is not a positive outcome. The algae provide 80 to 90% of the coral food source through their photosynthesis. Without this the coral do not receive enough energy to survive, they do become stressed and will not likely survive. The coral would end up ejecting the algae and become bleached.

  43. I had to read the links you sent us, and I became interested in this little creature and their relationships. So I did some research to know more, and I ask myself these five questions.
    How do the coral-algae interactions vary according to the species? What are the effects of algae on young and adult corals? How can corals defend themselves against algae, do they have to protect against them? Also, if so, by what mechanisms can algae affect coral?

  44. Noelline Djoko
    ENVS100

    I had to read the links you sent us, and I became interested in this little creature and their relationships. So I did some research to know more, and I ask myself these five questions.
    How do the coral-algae interactions vary according to the species? What are the effects of algae on young and adult corals? How can corals defend themselves against algae, do they have to protect against them? Also, if so, by what mechanisms can algae affect coral?

    1. Noelline, thanks for asking so many questions about coral and algae. There are a couple different ways coral interact with algae.

      One is their symbiotic relationship with zooxanthellae that produce much of the food for coral, while coral provide those algae with a home.

      To better understand the difference between young and old coral let’s try this video first as an introduction to the coral life cycle. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7hUpvILTkvs

      Sometimes there are overgrowths of opportunistic macroalgae (e.g., seaweeds such as red algae Laurencia intricata and Spyridia filamentosa; brown algae, Dictyota spp. and Sargassum filipendula; and green algae, Enteromorpha spp., Codium isthmocladum, and Halimeda spp.) that cause problems. These species out-compete, overgrow, and replace coral reef habitats.
      This unfortunately results in reduced light availability to bottom communities, lower productivity, habitat loss from low oxygen conditions, and eventual die-off of some coral.

  45. ENVS 100

    Are other reefs such as the damaged reefs in Florida and the Great Barrier Reef capable of the same recovery seen in Cabo Pulmo? Additionally, is there an observable point where we can say a coral reef is beyond full recovery?

    1. Jack, yes there are stages to the coral bleaching and dying process. There is a good photo here on the Mission Blue website.
      https://mission-blue.org/2017/07/great-barrier-reef-legacy-safeguarding-australias-national-treasure/bleaching-coral-stages-graphic/
      and here is a graphic drawing.
      https://theworldsgreatestbarrierreef.files.wordpress.com/2012/11/bleaching.jpg
      Coral will become fluorescent before they bleach, we aren’t sure what causes this; then they bleach; and if filamentous algae begin to grow on them then they are beyond recovery.

    1. Yes Sydney – this cutting of coral (even though it is an animal) allows it to propagate itself much like plants do. This is called fragmentation in the coral world and it is used to establish new coral for aquariums and also the ocean. I can tell you more about it in class. December 2017 I was trained at Mote Marine Lab in the Florida Keys on how to fragment and grow coral to plant it out. Thanks for asking!

  47. Oksana Golovko, BIOL 108

    Some places that are a habitat for corals and, at the same time, attract many tourists, started placing a lot of attention on type of sunscreens people use . I’ve seen tour guides do a great job of gently but firmly guiding people away from products harmful to corals. Is there any statistics on how effective those measures are? Are corals coming back in those places?

    1. Khoung, Some are saying that more than 90% of the world’s reefs will be extinct by 2050 (if we do nothing). People are working to restore reefs and to raise awareness so that we can protect the reefs more. As Joanie Kleypas (http://www.cgd.ucar.edu/staff/kleypas/) says, “it will not be the end of the world”, however it will impact 25% of the marine fishes and extend to other organisms in the food chain. It expect it would be a big change.

    1. Kimberly, which class are you in please? Coral have many benefits they provide to the ecosystem. Habitat for young fishes is a primary benefit, but you are right about they also affect the mineralization of the sands beneath. On another post I wrote a little about this and gave a link. We will have to look through to find that one. Basically, the coral have a mucus that oozes on them and this mucus is sticky and will capture particulate in the water. Eventually the mucus sloughs off and drifts to the ocean bottom where particulates rest. It may seem simple, but from the studies I’ve read the amount of mineralization of the sands coming about this way is significant. Thank you for asking.

    1. Yes Da there are other ways to help save the coral. In a few of the posts above is information about the kind of sunscreen we wear and how that matters, also to lessen other stressors of coral helps to reduce the impact from temperature stress some. In addition overfishing and destructive fishing can be a factor. For example how shrimp are often harvested by dredging along the bottom. Pollution in the ocean and inland sources of pollution can also move through the water and impact coral reefs. I hope this answers your question! Thank you!

    1. Thanks for asking David, yes plastics do affect the coral too. Part of the issue with some sunscreens is the nanoparticles getting into the coral tissue. The impacts are not fully understood, but some studies show that the plastic in the coral environment increases susceptibility to pathogens for the coral. So they are more likely to become diseased. There is another post where I gave a link to a short article on this, as well.

    1. Jessica – when the corals are stressed and bleach sometimes they are able to recover, but if they stay bleached long enough and reach the point where filamentous algae are growing on them then no they will die. I have stressed coral in the tank we have in S114 and seen them recover. This can also happen in the ocean.
      I just thought I would add this video to this post. It has over 4 million views! It is 2 hours of coral reef. Enjoy!
      https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cC9r0jHF-Fw

    2. Hi Stephen, this question is similar to Jessica’s above so I am going to ask that you read the answer there and add a bit more here. Sometimes the reef can recover, but here is a news video of The Great Barrier Reef bleaching event that happened in 2016.
      https://edition.cnn.com/videos/world/2016/03/22/great-barrier-reef-coral-bleaching-wwf-orig-mg.cnn
      I think the images will give you a better idea.
      Once the reef dies it is not a source of habitat it once was for the fishes and other organisms that live on it. About 25% of marine fishes inhabit coral reefs. Thank you for asking!

    1. Brown Gitau
      BIO 108

      Let me re-write my questions. How are scientists able to measure the age of the reef. What are the terms of the protected area? are the people in Cabo Pulmo unable to fish due to the detriment of marine life?

      1. Brown, this is an interesting question.
        One way to measure coral reef age is through carbon dating, but as you can read here (https://www.whoi.edu/page.do?pid=99556&tid=7342&cid=125949) it isn’t a perfect technique. The coral exoskeleton can be aged either by counting seasonal–annual density bands (like tree-rings) or, less accurately, by calculating the age using a formula and growth rate. From what I have read living coral reefs may be a few years old or thousands of years age.
        Cabo Pulmo as a reef has been dated at 20,000 years old.
        In the geology of Isle La Motte, Vermont are remnants of the Chazy Reef, which dated at 480 million years old, is considered the oldest reef in the world and where corals first appeared. Thanks for asking.

  57. Ming Li
    ENVS & 100
    Hello!

    Besides rising temperature in the Ocean, is there any major issues also causing coral bleaching to happen that we can prevent as human? If we raise more awareness, will we witness more coral reefs in the ocean and start to grow more until indanger?

    1. Ming, I do hope that as we raise awareness that the impacts will be lowered and coral will last beyond 2050 (that is when one model predicts 90% of the coral will be gone worldwide).
      Yes, there are other factors besides ocean temperatures affecting the coral reefs – marine and onshore pollution, plastics in the water, and some ways of fishing scrap along the bottom of the ocean and over the coral. If you skim through some of the previous posts now that have answers I provide more details on these factors. Thanks for asking!

    1. Adam,
      Here is a list of threats to coral from USEPA

      Physical damage or destruction from coastal development, dredging, quarrying, destructive fishing practices and gear, boat anchors and groundings, and recreational misuse (touching or removing corals).

      Pollution that originates on land but finds its way into coastal waters. There are many types and sources of pollution from land-based activities, for example:

      Sedimentation from coastal development, urban stormwater runoff, forestry, and agriculture. Sedimentation has been identified as a primary stressor for the existence and recovery of coral species and their habitats. Sediment deposited onto reefs can smother corals and interfere with their ability to feed, grow, and reproduce.

      Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorous) from agricultural and residential fertilizer use, sewage discharges (including wastewater treatment plants and septic systems), and animal waste. Nutrients are generally recognized as beneficial for marine ecosystems; however, coral reefs are adapted to low nutrient levels; so an excess of nutrients can lead to the growth of algae that blocks sunlight and consumes oxygen corals need for respiration. This often results in an imbalance affecting the entire ecosystem. Excess nutrients can also support growth of microorganisms, like bacteria and fungi, that can be pathogenic to corals.

      Pathogens from inadequately treated sewage, stormwater, and runoff from livestock pens. Although rare, bacteria and parasites from fecal contamination can cause disease in corals, especially if they are stressed by other environmental conditions. Coral disease occurs in healthy ecosystems, but the input of pathogen-containing pollution can exacerbate the frequency and intensity of disease outbreaks.

      Toxic substances, including metals, organic chemicals and pesticides found in industrial discharges, sunscreens, urban and agricultural runoff, mining activities, and runoff from landfills
      Pesticides can affect coral reproduction, growth, and other physiological processes. Herbicides, in particular, can affect the symbiotic algae (plants). This can damage their partnership with coral and result in bleaching. Metals, such as mercury and lead, and organic chemicals, such as polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs), oxybenzone and dioxin, are suspected of affecting coral reproduction, growth rate, feeding, and defensive responses.
      Trash and micro-plastics from improper disposal and stormwater runoff. Trash such as plastic bags, bottles, and discarded fishing gear (also called marine debris) that makes its way into the sea can snag on corals and block the sunlight needed for photosynthesis, or entangle and kill reef organisms and break or damage corals. Degraded plastics and microplastics (e.g., beads in soap) can be consumed by coral, fish, sea turtles, and other reef animals, blocking their digestive tracts and potentially introducing toxics.

      Overfishing can alter food-web structure and cause cascading effects, such as reducing the numbers of grazing fish that keep corals clean of algal overgrowth. Blast fishing (i.e., using explosives to kill fish) can cause physical damage to corals as well.

      Thanks for asking! Also see some of the previous posts about this topic.

  59. Zoe Shi

    ENVS 100 (online)

    I am curious as to whether there are mutated corals that can survive in a single body (no seaweed is required). I know that corals are white, but I am curious if there are corals that leave the algae and still retain color？

    1. Zoe, I do not know of any corals that have a single body instead of many polyps. Please remind me to research that some. Coral are white when they have lost their symbiotic algae. This is when they are bleached and dead or dying. I think this too is an interesting question – are there living corals with color not from the algae? I really do not know of one, so two very challenging questions that we will need to research more. Thank you for asking!

    1. Kuan, That is a great question to ask Dr. Hector Reyes-Bonilla about Cabo Pulmo. I will email him, but it may be awhile before he responds. It took years to reach the level of degradation it had, but recovered in 10 years. This rapid recovery may be due to the proximity of Cabo Pulmo to the open ocean – plenty of opportunity for marine creatures to migrate toward it.

    1. Natasha,
      Acropora (staghorn coral) is one of the most widespread coral groups in the world. For the last 1.8 million years it has flourished and supported marine life. If you go to S114 and look in the tank I have some Acropora millepora in the tank. However, at Cabo Pulmo the most abundant species were Pocillopora and Porites (1977, Brusca and Thomson). I believe I am translating Spanish correctly in a paper by Dr. Reyes-Bonilla (Hidrobiológica 2017, 27 (1): 131-135) and that Pocillopora is still the most abundant species at the Cabo Pulmo reef.

    1. Claire, yes there are many things we can do to lessen our consumption of fossil fuels and lower our carbon footprint. That will make a difference for one of the primary stressors of coral – a warming ocean. I know you are aware of some of those types of changes because we have been working on the Drawdown project (drawdown.org) that lists about 80 impactful actions.
      Here is another list from the Union of Concerned Scientists.
      https://www.ucsusa.org/our-work/global-warming/solutions/global-warming-solutions-reduce-emissions#.XGtco5NKjos
      The question is what are we willing to do?

    1. Yes, I believe this could be possible. I suspect it would be complicated to synthesize even these simple organisms and get them to take to the coral. And if the stress factors continue, then the coral would still reject the new zooxanthellae. What scientists are doing is looking at what the coral genes do to see if there is a way to assist their sustainability as the ocean changes. We can talk about this more in class, but see the link I gave Levvy.

  65. EMILY LEESE
    ENVS 100

    This might be a loaded question but what does micro-fragmenting entail? Aside from leading a more sustainable lifestyle, what other ways or techniques do scientists use to help restore damaged coral reef?

    1. Emily, I read this a few days ago, but just haven’t had time to answer! I spent a week being trained on micro-fragmentation so could give you a long answer, but will post something shorter. I’ll provide a powerpoint of it in the module if I have not. Basically, you cut the coral into pieces about 1 cm square (a micro-fragment). The cleanest way to do this is with a diamond jewelry saw. It is important to have clean cuts to minimize the chance of infection. Here is a youtube of Dr. Dave Vaughan talking about micro-fragmentation. He is the person I learned the technique from. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ysJ1YDRvPUo
      Scientists are also investigating coral genomes to better understand factors that influence coral and try to come up with strategies to aid their sustainability. I posted a brief reference on that for Levvy. Thanks for asking!

    1. Nemacio, from the symbiotic coral and zooxanthellae relationship coral receive 80 to 90 percent of their food. The coral only filter in food during the night when their is no sunlight and it isn’t a large portion of their diet. So the coral would not live very long, days, maybe a couple weeks. Coral are animals, but their main food source is from the zooxanthellae. I hope that helps! You can read more here https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/education/kits/corals/coral02_zooxanthellae.html

    1. Sam,
      Yes there are other factors. In some of the earlier posts that I have now answered I give some links to different lists of factors. Coral are sensitive as they are adapted to a narrow range of conditions. Many factors, both natural and anthropogenic, can cause bleaching: exposure to ultraviolet radiation, exposure to toxins, sedimentation, excess nutrients, salinity, aerial exposure, and disease to name a few.

    1. Emma, In both cases, warmer ocean temperatures are a primary culprit. I am sure each locale has different additional factors (overfishing, tourism, disease, pollutants) that add to the situation. I would need to research a bit more to know precisely the distinctions between the two locations and their bleaching events. Thanks for asking.

  69. Hi Professor Lane,
    My question about coral is what its DNA structure is and how its survival rates have impacted other wildlife in its surrounding ecosystem? I have also heard the great barrier reef is at great risk due to warming water.
    Mia Morehart Bio 108

    1. Hi Mia,
      Coral DNA has the same four nucleotides (A,T,C,G) as human DNA and there are projects to sequence the genome of different species of coral. The Sea-quence Project (https://www.barrierreef.org/science-with-impact/10-coral-genomes) is targeting 10 coral species that live on The Great Barrier Reef to sequence first. The human genome and the coral genome both contain about 22,000 genes. This project is because of the bleaching that has happened on The Great Barrier Reef. Here is a fairly recent news article that describes the loss of species on The Great Barrier Reef that I think will be interesting to you. https://www.newscientist.com/article/2187654-the-great-barrier-reef-is-fighting-back-by-losing-weak-species/

    1. Thanks Ian, a good detail to ask about. Reef-building corals cannot tolerate water temperatures below 64° Fahrenheit (18° Celsius). Many grow best in water temperatures between 73° and 84° Fahrenheit (23°–29°Celsius), but some can tolerate temperatures as high as 104° Fahrenheit (40° Celsius) for short periods.

      There are coral in the Mediterranean that are more heat tolerant. Studies (Bay and Palumbi, 2014) have shown too that the genetic basis for heat tolerance in corals may lie in maintaining a diverse set of alternative alleles across multiple loci. So flexibility.

      Most reef-building corals also require very saline (salty) water ranging from 32 to 42 parts per thousand.

    1. Hi Kaitlyn,
      The coral on the reefs obtain 80 to 90% of their food from the zooxanthellae. So when the coral become stressed and expel the zooxanthellae they bleach (because their color comes from the zooxanthellae) and they lose the majority of their food source. At night the coral will open their mouths and feed that way, but most food is from the photosynthetic algae (zooxanthellae).

      The bleached coral eventually starve and die. The reef is no longer a living environment. Camouflage would not work well anymore, as everything is white or once the filamentous algae move in greenish-brown. It isn’t the same colorful reef. So the young fish and sea turtles are less protected. They must move on in the ocean to another place. So the long-term effect is a dead reef without fish and other typical marine organisms. Here is a picture series of a coral food web. https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/coral-reef-food-web/
      Other organisms will come in and establish themselves, but it won’t be the ecosystem of a coral reef. Nature is about change and adaptation to that change. The concern is that much of the change is due to people and the change is happening quickly, making adaptation difficult.

    1. Isabela, these are all good questions. I don’t know that we can have it like before. Nature is constantly changing. What is of concern and scary is that this change has been extensive and over my lifetime – so while I’m old, I’m not that old! It’s a pretty quick change for nature. I think some reefs will be lost and many will be recover, but perhaps in a slightly different way than before.

  75. Connor H.
    ENVS 100

    How much would wave action from commercial and recreational vessels affect the the coral when it is in a blooming or fragile state? I understand seas get rough on their own, but could the additional wave action increase turbidity and smother the coral?

    1. Connor,
      How are you doing up there in the snow? Good challenge question, I did find some information from Stanford. https://engineering.stanford.edu/magazine/article/how-do-wave-dynamics-and-water-flows-affect-coral-reefs
      In brief, heavy pounding on the outer edges of a reef is a stressor, but wave action can also cool the temperature of the reef. So adding flow may be a positive thing for reefs at certain times.

      We are going to have to read the full article. “Thermodynamics and hydrodynamics in an atoll reef system and their influence on coral cover,” by Stephen Monismith, David Koweek, Walter Torres and Robert Dunbar.
      Thanks for asking!

  76. Hello this Jack Tillman, what type of organism do you believe shares the same kind of conscious state as corals? That being how they interpret sensory data to react to their environment as well the capacity to do it in an intelligent way.

    1. Jack, very interesting angle on your question. I would say that other species in the Cnidaria phylum like jellyfish, hydras, sea anemones would have a similar conscious state as corals. If you have time read about them and we can talk about it later this week. Thanks for asking!

    1. Milena,
      As we read through the responses to the posts you will notice many reasons for coral to be stressed and declining. Here is USEPA’s list. It varies depending on the location.

      Coral reefs face many threats from local sources, including:
      Physical damage or destruction from coastal development, dredging, quarrying, destructive fishing practices and gear, boat anchors and groundings, and recreational misuse (touching or removing corals).
      Pollution that originates on land but finds its way into coastal waters. There are many types and sources of pollution from land-based activities, for example:
      Sedimentation from coastal development, urban stormwater runoff, forestry, and agriculture
      Sedimentation has been identified as a primary stressor for the existence and recovery of coral species and their habitats. Sediment deposited onto reefs can smother corals and interfere with their ability to feed, grow, and reproduce.
      Nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorous) from agricultural and residential fertilizer use, sewage discharges (including wastewater treatment plants and septic systems), and animal waste. Nutrients are generally recognized as beneficial for marine ecosystems; however, coral reefs are adapted to low nutrient levels; so an excess of nutrients can lead to the growth of algae that blocks sunlight and consumes oxygen corals need for respiration. This often results in an imbalance affecting the entire ecosystem. Excess nutrients can also support growth of microorganisms, like bacteria and fungi, that can be pathogenic to corals.
      Pathogens from inadequately treated sewage, stormwater, and runoff from livestock pens. Although rare, bacteria and parasites from fecal contamination can cause disease in corals, especially if they are stressed by other environmental conditions. Coral disease occurs in healthy ecosystems, but the input of pathogen-containing pollution can exacerbate the frequency and intensity of disease outbreaks.
      Toxic substances, including metals, organic chemicals and pesticides found in industrial discharges, sunscreens, urban and agricultural runoff, mining activities, and runoff from landfills
      Pesticides can affect coral reproduction, growth, and other physiological processes. Herbicides, in particular, can affect the symbiotic algae (plants). This can damage their partnership with coral and result in bleaching. Metals, such as mercury and lead, and organic chemicals, such as polychlorobiphenyls (PCBs), oxybenzone and dioxin, are suspected of affecting coral reproduction, growth rate, feeding, and defensive responses.
      Trash and micro-plastics from improper disposal and stormwater runoff. Trash such as plastic bags, bottles, and discarded fishing gear (also called marine debris) that makes its way into the sea can snag on corals and block the sunlight needed for photosynthesis, or entangle and kill reef organisms and break or damage corals. Degraded plastics and microplastics (e.g., beads in soap) can be consumed by coral, fish, sea turtles, and other reef animals, blocking their digestive tracts and potentially introducing toxics.
      Overfishing can alter food-web structure and cause cascading effects, such as reducing the numbers of grazing fish that keep corals clean of algal overgrowth. Blast fishing (i.e., using explosives to kill fish) can cause physical damage to corals as well.
      Coral harvesting for the aquarium trade, jewelry, and curios can lead to over-harvesting of specific species, destruction of reef habitat, and reduced biodiversity.

      I would say the two primary factors are some of our fishing techniques and the warming ocean temperatures.

  78. Nora Williams
    ENVS 100
    Professor Lane,
    What can we do as individuals or as a community to help with this problem? It seems like a very distant issue in my everyday life, but I’m sure there is something I could be doing to help.

  79. Isabella Danilyuk
    ENVS 100

    I realize that coral bleaching is caused by the ocean rising in temperature and if the steady warming of the ocean increases the way it is right now, how many more years until all the coral bleaches? What can people do on an individual scale to help?

    1. Isabella,
      One prediction is that if we do nothing, then most coral will be gone by 2050. What can we do? Our drawdown project (drawdown.org) is related to lessening our carbon footprint. By lessening our carbon footprint we can help keep the ocean temperatures lower and minimize ocean acidification.

    1. Emma,
      The coral restoration process is of putting down fragments of coral onto the dead or dying reefs do help speed up recovery. Scientists are also looking at genetic variations that make the coral more adaptable. And by lessening other stressors in the location (pollution, plastics, disease, temperature, etc.) this helps the recovery too. Thanks for asking.

    1. Clay,
      Yes, this is interesting. The coral polyps secrete their skeleton from the underside of their skin. This process attaches it to the rock. When we go out to attach coral to a reef to restore the reef we glue or plaster the fragment onto the reef and eventually the coral secretes it skeleton on top of where we have attached it.

    1. Blake, thanks for asking. If we read through the responses you will see some other suggestions, but in this comment I’d like to talk about ocean acidification.

      Ocean acidification refers to a change in ocean chemistry in response to the uptake of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere. And as you know, the burning of fossil fuels is increasing the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The carbon dioxide in the atmosphere is in equilibrium with the carbon dioxide in seawater, so when atmospheric concentrations increase so do oceanic concentrations. But in the ocean, carbon dioxide reacts to form carbonic acid, causing an increase in acidity.

      Each year, the ocean absorbs about one-quarter of the carbon dioxide emitted from the burning of fossil fuels (oil, coal, and natural gas). Since the Industrial Revolution, ocean acidity has increased by about 30%, a rate that is more than 10 times what has previously occurred for millions of years. Further, ocean acidity levels are expected to increase by an additional 40% above present levels by the end of this century.

      For the coral a more acidic ocean makes the dissolved salts and ions needed by corals to form the calcium carbonate structure less available. This slows coral growth and reef growth. If acidification becomes severe, coral skeletons (and shells) can actually dissolve.

      Nutrient enrichment due to run-off from human activities on land can also cause increased acidity in coastal waters, exacerbating the effects of ocean acidification.

    1. Mekhi,
      It will depend in part on how close we are to the reefs. Millions of people do depend on coral reefs for their livelihood (fishing, tourism) and for protection of their coastline. According to a study countries in Southeast Asia such as Indonesia, Thailand and Philippines would bear the brunt of the damage. And coastal communities in western Mexico and parts of Australia, Japan and Saudi Arabia. Here is the study published in 2016 https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0164699

    1. Anna,
      This is an interesting question. It is likely a balance of all the stressors declining enough that the coral stops ejecting the zooxanthellae and they are able to reestablish themselves, offer food to coral, and the health begins to restore. Does this make sense? So if the water temperature is the primary cause of bleaching, the water temperature cools to within a temperature range that is more acceptable for the coral.

    1. Tomas, Currently people are fragmenting the coral, growing it in a nursery, then “outplanting” the coral after it is old enough to a dead or dying reef. I have a powerpoint on this that I will post to the module if I have not, and we can talk about it. Most groups establish the nurseries in the ocean, but Dr. Dave Vaughan and his group does this on land. I received my Coral Restoration training from Dr. Vaughan.

    1. Selena, the coral bleach or turn white because they are so stressed that they reject the symbiotic algae that live in their tissues. These algae are what give them their color and provide 80 or 90% of their food. Yes just like us, sometimes the coral recover, the algae return, and they survive. If the coral remain without the symbiotic photosynthetic algae as a source for food for too long, they do not recover and die. Many things can stress the coral (disease, too warm of water temperature, water where the pH is too low). In the past 30 or 40 years the ocean waters are warmer and more acidic due to increased carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. There are many things we can do to lessen our carbon dioxide footprint.

    1. Hi Neida,
      There are definitely natural causes of coral bleaching. It could be a disease or infection that happens, or the water level changes and the coral are exposed to too much sunlight, or they don’t have water over them most of the time. Anything that might stress the coral enough to make it start expelling the zooxanthellae.
      Yes, coral do sometimes recover from bleaching. Here is a video about The Great Barrier Reef and how part of it is recovering.
      https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jZCRL92F6-I

    1. Hi Ashley, Yes there are many things that people can do to lessen coral bleaching. One of the main stressors of coral is the warming of the oceans, which is largely due anthropogenic burning of fossil fuels. This goes back to our carbon footprint we assessed at the beginning of the quarter. More recently we also looked at how our carbon footprint would change if we drove an electric vehicle instead of our current mode of transportation. But in the assessment of our carbon footprint there are many choices that we can make to reduce it and any of those options would help lessen the warming of the oceans. It will make a difference if everyone changes just a little.

      How does coral bleaching affect you? It varies some from person to person of course. If you eat seafood, then 25% of the marine fishes use the reefs for habitat. I saw such a good example of this yesterday on my snorkel. There were so many schools of young fish in the reef (tuna for one). At this time of year the reefs in Cabo Pulmo are a refuge for many young. The reefs in this small preserve area are the source of at least half of the fish that go on to live in the Sea of Cortez. If you live along the Baja or Western Mexico, then you are more directly impacted as fishing may be the livelihood for your family. In Seattle, many of us like yellow tail tuna. Thank you for asking!

    1. Lalita,

      There are some marine organisms (Parrot fish) that may graze on the coral, but usually that is not an overburden. However, just like when we are stressed and then one more thing happens. It may cause us to be more susceptible to disease, this happens too for the coral. So with the combination of different factors in the environment what is usually not an issue could become one. Does this make sense to you?

    2. Hey Lalita many of the organisms, fish, crab etc, that depend on the coral reef biome will lose either their source of food or shelter. Many of the organisms have a simbiotic relationship with the corals, like crabs, that without the corals these crabs would go nearly extinct.

  90. I know there are corals near the puget sound, because you told us in lecture. Is there anyway to dive and see these corals like you are doing in Mexico?

    What the difference between the coral you are seeing than the coral that is in the Northwest Pacific Ocean?

    Also the corals in the Northwest Pacific Ocean have they received as much damage as the corals in the tropics? Do they face different or same obstacles as the coral you are visiting?

    1. Bailey,
      That’s an exciting question. Jacques Cousteau (a famous marine diver) said that Cabo Pulmo is the “aquarium of the ocean”, but I know he also liked diving in Puget Sound. Diver Laura is my contact in the Puget Sound diving world and she dives and films there regularly to film pollution in Puget Sound among other things. http://www.diverlaura.me

      The coral in warm waters typically have zooxanthellae; while cold water corals typically do not. Orange Cup, Sea Strawberry, Pale Soft Coral and Sea Pens are some of the species found in Puget Sound. Here are some pictures from a local dive group http://www.emeralddiving.com/id_corals.html
      These all use their tentacles to feed on phytoplankton and micro-zooplankton.
      Orange cup coral are small (thumb size) stony coral that do not have zooxanthellae.
      Sea strawberries are a type of soft coral, which means they do not produce stony calcium carbonate skeletons like many of the larger, tropical corals. Large clusters of sea strawberries are important nursery and feeding habitats for lobsters and other organisms.
      Sea Pens https://www.eopugetsound.org/articles/slender-sea-pen These look like feathers or quills. They have feeding polyps, called autozooids that wave their tentacles in the water column to catch drifting plankton. They can be found off-shore of downtown Seattle!
      Puget Sound does have an issue with warming temperatures and acidification. We will be talking about this in class.

    1. Juanjuan Xu Environment Science
      Bottom trawling can damage coral reefs, a method of fishing that uses trawling to cross the bottom of the ocean floor. Because the roller dragged over the coral reef, it tore the surface and destroyed anything on the path. Will leave a bare rock scar on the coral reef, most of which can not be restored for many years. I am worried that the coral reef will die due to excessive human activities. What steps should we take to reduce coral deaths

  96. Juanjuan Xu Environment Science 100
    Rising sea temperatures can cause corals to fade. When the temperature of the sea water is too high, the corals discharge the algae that live in their tissues, causing the corals to turn white. When the coral was bleached, it did not die immediately. Although corals can survive, they are suffer greater stress and are easy to death. I hope that human beings should protect the environment and return a suitable living space for corals.

  97. I have seen many people selling coral ornaments in the market. Many people sell real corals. This makes me very heartbroken because whenever there is an additional coral display on the market, it means that there is one less coral in the ocean. I wonder if there is a clear law in the United States that penalties can be imposed if humans harm corals? Or is there any country on earth that has laws specifically designed to protect corals?

  98. Hannah Lee
    ENVS& 100

    I am aware that in recent years, two types of starfishes in the Pacific Northwest and near Puget Sounds are endangered and if they were to be extinct, this will be a negative impact to the ocean ecosystem.

    What are ways we can help corals and to prevent them from dying?

  101. Madison Shimkus
    ENVS 100

    When thinking about coral reefs, a question that comes to mind is: If all of the coral reefs on earth were to be completely decimated, how would that impact the environment? More specifically, how much would it throw off the balance of the oceans ecosystems?

  104. How long does it take coral to grow? How long does it take for an entire coral reef to fully develop? Is there any way we can ensure that future coral will grow at a decent rate in order to replace the dead coral before too much damage is done?

  105. Amaya Devera (ENVS 100)
    I haven’t been aware of the coral being affected by human activity since I started this quarter. But when I did find out about it, I was very shocked because it is very interesting to find out that even one change in degrees will affect these organisms greatly.

  106. Jiongmu Chen
    EVVS100
    Many countries have banned the collection of coral reefs and have strengthened environmental protection. Why do coral reefs still disappear?
    Where are the different coral reefs in the world?

  107. Chase F.
    ENVS 100
    You mentioned that there is cold water coral found in the Pacific Northwest and in the Puget Sound. Is the coral in the Puget Sound easily accessible and is this coral subject to the same stress that the Coral Reef is currently experiencing?

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